Create a seam for testing using default values and function references

I learned about seams after reading Micheal Feathers’s book Working Effectively with Legacy Code. In essence a seam is a way to circumvent code that makes testing hard or even impossible.

For example, lets say we have a class that checks if a given task is valid. For reasons that do not interest us that same class makes a connection to another service and sends some data to it. That connection alone makes the class hard to test since we need to have and maintain a connection to that service during testing:

	class TaskChecker {

	fun check(task: Task): CheckResult {

	if (isNotCreatedInCurrentWeek(task)) return Invalid
	if (isResolved(task)) return Invalid
	if (isNotAssigned(task)) return Invalid

	return Valid
	}

	private fun isNotAssigned(task: Task): Boolean {
	if (task.assignedTo != Nobody) return false

	val connection = Connection()
	val assigner = TaskAssigner(connection)
	assigner.add(task)

	return true
	}

	//…
	}

view raw creating_a_seam_initial.kt hosted with ❤ by GitHub

In this example, isNotAssigned() makes the necessary checks but also sends the task to TaskAssigner so if we want to write some tests for TaskChecker we need to make sure that assigner is up and running.

Object seams

According to Mr Feathers there are three types of seams. The one that fits our case is called object seam and we are going to use it in order to bypass entirely making a connection and talking to the assigner.

Following the book’s example we end up with this:

	class TestingTaskChecker : TaskChecker() {
	override fun sendTaskToAssigner(task: Task) {
	// do nothing
	}
	}

	open class TaskChecker {

	fun check(task: Task): CheckResult {

	if (isNotCreatedInCurrentWeek(task)) return Invalid
	if (isResolved(task)) return Invalid
	if (isNotAssigned(task)) return Invalid

	return Valid
	}

	private fun isNotAssigned(task: Task): Boolean {
	if (task.assignedTo != Nobody) return false

	sendTaskToAssigner(task)

	return true
	}

	protected open fun sendTaskToAssigner(task: Task) {
	val connection = Connection()
	val assigner = TaskAssigner(connection)
	assigner.add(task)
	}

	//…
	}

view raw creating_a_seam_books_approach.kt hosted with ❤ by GitHub

which does exactly what we want since it provides a way to write tests that do not involve the assigner. We just need to use TestingTaskChecker in our tests and we are good to go.

The downside with this approach is that we had to open our class which might not meet the project’s standards.

Function reference

Lets see what we can do without opening the class.

Just like before we need to extract the behavior that we want to override to its own method but this time we are also going to assign this method to a value and use the value in the calling site:

	class TaskChecker {

	private val safeSendTaskToAssigner: (Task) -> Unit = ::sendTaskToAssigner

	fun check(task: Task): CheckResult {

	if (isNotCreatedInCurrentWeek(task)) return Invalid
	if (isResolved(task)) return Invalid
	if (isNotAssigned(task)) return Invalid

	return Valid
	}

	private fun isNotAssigned(task: Task): Boolean {
	if (task.assignedTo != Nobody) return false

	safeSendTaskToAssigner(task)

	return true
	}

	private fun sendTaskToAssigner(task: Task) {
	val connection = Connection()
	val assigner = TaskAssigner(connection)
	assigner.add(task)
	}

	//…
	}

view raw creating_a_seam_function_reference.kt hosted with ❤ by GitHub

isNotAssigned() will keep talking with the assigner only this time it does it through safeSendTaskToAssigner.

Default value

Having this function reference means that we can force isNotAssigned() to change its behavior by simply assigning a new value to safeSendTaskToAssigner! And this is what we are going to do:

	class TaskChecker(
	seamToAssigner: ((Task) -> Unit)? = null
	) {

	private val safeSendTaskToAssigner: (Task) -> Unit = seamToAssigner ?: ::sendTaskToAssigner

	fun check(task: Task): CheckResult {

	if (isNotCreatedInCurrentWeek(task)) return Invalid
	if (isResolved(task)) return Invalid
	if (isNotAssigned(task)) return Invalid

	return Valid
	}

	private fun isNotAssigned(task: Task): Boolean {
	if (task.assignedTo != Nobody) return false

	safeSendTaskToAssigner(task)

	return true
	}

	private fun sendTaskToAssigner(task: Task) {
	val connection = Connection()
	val assigner = TaskAssigner(connection)
	assigner.add(task)
	}

	//…
	}

view raw creating_a_seam_final.kt hosted with ❤ by GitHub

By default the seam is null which leads in having safeSendTaskToAssigner referencing the original behavior allowing the entire project to keep working as before without any additional changes to other files.

If now we pass a non null value then it gets assigned to safeSendTaskToAssigner and ends up being called instead of sendTaskToAssigner. This way we remove the communication from our flow allowing us to finally write some tests.

Testing

All we need to do is to write our tests by simply creating a checker with a do nothing seam:

	@Test fun `a task that is not assigned is invalid`() {
	val task = Task(AssignedTo.Nobody)
	val taskChecker = TaskChecker {} // <– check with seam

	val actual = taskChecker.check(task)

	assertThat(actual, equalTo(Invalid))
	}

view raw creating_a_seam_test.kt hosted with ❤ by GitHub

Horizontal RecyclerView inside a vertical one

Or to be exact, multiple RecyclerViews with horizontal orientation inside a RecyclerView where its orientation is vertical.

Easy to implement and works out of box quite well as long as the user swipes gently or flings in an almost straight motion. Unfortunately this is not always the case. Especially when holding the phone with one hand the user tends to swipe with her thumb and in a great velocity ending up in a fling motion that has an arch shape:

This has the result of either moving on the vertical axis or not moving at all in both axes:

All movements in this video are with my right thumb while holding a 6” phone in my right hand.
You might have noticed that the user’s experience gets even worse when trying to scroll a list that is positioned either in the bottom or the bottom half of the screen.

The touch flow

But why is that happening? To understand it we must first understand the flow that a single touch event follows starting by defining two things:

Every motion our finger does, either touching the screen, lifting it from it or dragging it along is being translated to a MotionEvent that gets emitted from the framework to our app. More specifically to our active activity.
A gesture is the sequence of motion events that start from touching our finger down, the MotionEvent‘s action is ACTION_DOWN, until we lift it up, the MotionEvent‘s action is ACTION_UP. All intermediate events have the ACTION_MOVE action.

Regular flow

So, when the framework registers a motion event it sends it to our activity which then calls the dispatchTouchEvent method in its root view. The root view dispatches the event to its child view that was in the touch area, the child view to its child and so on so forth until the event reaches the last view in the hierarchy:

The view then has to decide if it will consume the gesture by returning true in its onTouchEvent. If it returns false the flow will continue by asking the view’s parent and so on so forth until the event reaches the activity again.

Note that we say consume the gesture and continue here. That is because if the view returns true in the ACTION_DOWN event then all subsequent events, until the gesture’s end (ACTION_UP) will never reach the view’s parents on their way up. They will stop at the view.

Interception

You may ask yourself, what happens if the view’s parent is a scrollable view and the view decides to consume the gesture? Wouldn’t that mean that the parent will never get informed about the user’s movements thus will never scroll?

Correct! That is why the framework allows every view group to intercept an event before it reaches a view. There, the group can decide if it will just keep monitoring the events or stop them from ever reaching its children. This way view groups like ScrollView or RecyclerView can monitor the user’s gestures and if one of them gets translated to a scroll movement, they stop the events from getting to their children and handle them themselves (start scrolling).

The problem

This last part is the root of our bad UX. When the user flings her finger as shown above, the parent RecyclerView, which is always monitoring the emitted events, thinks that it was asked to scroll vertically and immediately prevents all other events from ever reaching the horizontal RecyclerViews while also start to scroll its content.

The solution

Fortunately the framework provides the solution (actually part of it) too.

A child view can ask its parent to stop intercepting and leave all events reach to it. This is done by calling, on its parent, the requestDisallowInterceptTouchEven(true) method. The request will cascade to all the parents in the hierarchy and as a result all events will reach the view.

That’s what we need to do here. All horizontal RecyclerViews need to ask their parents (this will affect the vertical RecyclerView too) to stop intercepting. The question is where to put this request.

Turns out that a OnItemTouchListener is the best place to make the request:

Add an RecyclerView.OnItemTouchListener to intercept touch events before they are dispatched to child views or this view’s standard scrolling behavior.
docs

This way we can act upon an event before reaching the recycler’s content:

	list.addOnItemTouchListener(
	object: RecyclerView.SimpleOnItemTouchListener() {
	override fun onInterceptTouchEvent(rv: RecyclerView, e: MotionEvent): Boolean {
	if (e.action == MotionEvent.ACTION_DOWN) {
	rv.parent.requestDisallowInterceptTouchEvent(true)
	}
	return super.onInterceptTouchEvent(rv, e)
	}
	}
	)

view raw request-disallow.kt hosted with ❤ by GitHub

With that we make sure that the moment the user starts a gesture nothing will stop it from reaching a horizontal recycler no matter how quick or slow the gesture is, or what shape it has.

Now you might wonder what happens when the user wants to actually scroll up or down! Well this is when we need to permit the parents to intercept again:

	list.addOnItemTouchListener(
	object : RecyclerView.SimpleOnItemTouchListener() {
	var initialX = 0f
	var initialY = 0f

	override fun onInterceptTouchEvent(rv: RecyclerView, e: MotionEvent): Boolean {
	if (e.action == MotionEvent.ACTION_DOWN) {
	rv.parent.requestDisallowInterceptTouchEvent(true)
	initialX = e.rawX
	initialY = e.rawY
	} else if (e.action == MotionEvent.ACTION_MOVE) {
	val xDiff = abs(e.rawX – initialX)
	val yDiff = abs(e.rawY – initialY)

	if (yDiff > xDiff) {
	rv.parent.requestDisallowInterceptTouchEvent(false)
	}
	}

	return super.onInterceptTouchEvent(rv, e)
	}
	}
	)

view raw request-disallow-full.kt hosted with ❤ by GitHub

On ACTION_DOWN except from making the request we also keep the x and y coordinates that the touch occurred. Then while the user drags her finger we try to figure out if the user drags it horizontally or vertically. If it is vertically then it does not concern us (being a horizontal recycler) so we allow our parents (this means the vertical recycler too) to start intercepting again. Now the vertical recycler acts upon the events and takes over the gesture:

after

PS: onTouchEvent is part of View and can only be overridden from custom views. That is why the framework provides a OnTouchListener so that we can consume a gesture in any of the framework’s views since the framework checks if there is a listener first and only if there is none or if it didn’t handle the event it calls onTouchEvent.

Don’t expose production code just for tests…

…or you’ll end up testing how your code does something and not what it does.

Think of it like a box

No matter what we consider to be a unit, be it a function, a class or an entire module, we should aim in testing it as we intend to consume it in the rest of our code.

This helps us in viewing the unit as a black box that accepts an input and provides an output. We don’t care what’s inside the box. We don’t care how the box handles our input. We only care about the outcome. This is what we need to assert.

Why do we write tests?

We write tests to make sure our code behaves as we intended it to. We write tests to document this behavior. We write tests to have a safety net whenever we wish to change the code but not its behavior.

The key here is behavior. Testing has nothing to do with implementation.

If we expose internal parts of our box we check how the box works and we couple it with our tests meaning that each time we make a change inside the box we have to change our tests too.

By definition this results in losing the ability to refactor.

Test it as it is meant to be used

When consuming a unit of code in production we respect its API and use it as is.

If we start testing individual parts of our box we might be certain that these parts work properly but we don’t know if their integration works too since we have asserted results that where the outcome of a flow that will never occur in our program. In other words we will never consume the API this way.

If testing the box as it’s meant to be used seems difficult then there is something wrong with the box’s API and by exposing code is like hiding all the dirt under the carpet. Eventually we will have to deal with it.

Use suspendCoroutine to connect callbacks and coroutines

Whenever we need to write asynchronous code we tend to use callbacks which allow us to trigger an action and, instead of waiting for it to finish, get notified through the callback for the action’s completion. Coroutines change that and help us write asynchronous code but in a sequential way.

This means that instead of writing code like this:

	fun main() {
	downloadTasks(
	object : DownloadCallback {
	override fun onDownloaded(tasks: List<Task>) {
	printTasks(tasks)
	}
	}
	)
	}

	interface DownloadCallback {
	fun onDownloaded(tasks: List<Task>)
	}

	private fun downloadTasks(callback: DownloadCallback) {
	println("Downloading…")
	// code that makes a network call and returns the list of tasks
	callback.onDownloaded(listOf(Task(1), Task(2), Task(3)))
	}

	private fun printTasks(tasks: List<Task>) {
	tasks.forEach { task -> println(task.id) }
	}

view raw suspend_coroutine__callbacks.kt hosted with ❤ by GitHub

we can write it like this:

	fun main(): Unit = runBlocking {
	launch {
	val tasks = downloadTasks()
	printTasks(tasks)
	}
	}

	private suspend fun downloadTasks() {
	println("Downloading…")
	// code that makes a network call and returns the list of tasks
	return listOf(Task(1), Task(2), Task(3))
	}

	private fun printTasks(tasks: List<Task>) {
	tasks.forEach { task -> println(task.id) }
	}

view raw suspend_coroutine__coroutines.kt hosted with ❤ by GitHub

But what do we do when there is no easy way to remove callbacks from existing code or when we use a third party library that is not coroutines ready? This is where suspendCoroutine comes to save the day.

suspendCoroutine

suspendCoroutine is a function that does exactly what is says. It suspends the coroutine that it was called from and provides a way to resume it.

Lets have an example. The code here:

	fun main(): Unit = runBlocking {
	launch {
	print("1 ")
	print("2 ")
	print("3 ")
	print("4 ")
	println("Done!")
	}
	}

view raw suspend_coroutine__example_init.kt hosted with ❤ by GitHub

simply prints 1 2 3 4 Done!. If we change it to:

	fun main(): Unit = runBlocking {
	launch {
	print("1 ")
	print("2 ")
	print("3 ")
	suspendCoroutine<Unit> { }
	print("4 ")
	println("Done!")
	}
	}

view raw suspend_coroutine__example_suspend.kt hosted with ❤ by GitHub

it will print 1 2 3 and then it will just wait. We suspended the coroutine but we did not resume it. To do so we will use the continuation instance that suspendCoroutine provides:

	fun main(): Unit = runBlocking {
	launch {
	print("1 ")
	print("2 ")
	print("3 ")
	suspendCoroutine<Unit> { continuation ->
	print("… ")
	continuation.resume(Unit)
	}
	print("4 ")
	println("Done!")
	}
	}

view raw suspend_coroutine__example_resume.kt hosted with ❤ by GitHub

now it prints 1 2 3 … 4 Done!. The coroutine printed the first three numbers, got suspended, while being suspended another block of code got executed and printed the dots and then resumed the coroutine allowing it to print the final number and done.

Continuation adapter

Back to our first example. Lets say that downloadTasks cannot be changed. We still need to call it and provide a callback for its results.

What we need to do is to suspend the coroutine, call downloadTasks to.. well.. download the tasks and provide a callback that upon completion it will resume the coroutine with the tasks at hand.

To achieve that we first need to create an adapter that will connect the callback with a continuation:

	private class ContinuationAdapter(
	private val continuation: Continuation<List<Task>>
	) : DownloadCallback {

	override fun onDownloaded(tasks: List<Task>) {
	continuation.resume(tasks)
	}
	}

view raw suspend_coroutine__continuation.kt hosted with ❤ by GitHub

and then call suspendCoroutine:

	fun main(): Unit = runBlocking {
	launch {
	val tasks = suspendCoroutine<List<Task>> { continuation -> downloadTasks(ContinuationAdapter(continuation)) }
	printTasks(tasks)
	}
	}

view raw suspend_coroutine__direct_suspendcoroutine.kt hosted with ❤ by GitHub

That’s it. The adapter resumes the coroutine by providing the tasks that are then returned to the suspension point.

One more thing

Along side suspendCoroutine there is also suspendCancellableCoroutine which provides a cancellable continuation. That means that in addition of resuming we can also execute code upon cancellation:

	fun main(): Unit = runBlocking {
	val job = launch(Dispatchers.IO) {
	val tasks = downloadAllTasks()
	printTasks(tasks)
	}

	delay(100)
	job.cancel()
	}

	private suspend fun downloadAllTasks(): List<Task> {
	return suspendCancellableCoroutine { continuation ->
	continuation.invokeOnCancellation { print("Cancelled…") }
	downloadTasks(ContinuationAdapter(continuation))
	}
	}

	private class ContinuationAdapter(
	private val continuation: Continuation<List<Task>>
	) : DownloadCallback {

	override fun onDownloaded(tasks: List<Task>) {
	continuation.resume(tasks)
	}
	}

	interface DownloadCallback {
	fun onDownloaded(tasks: List<Task>)
	}

	private fun downloadTasks(callback: DownloadCallback) {
	println("Downloading…")
	sleep(150) // simulate network latency
	val tasks = listOf(Task(1), Task(2), Task(3))
	callback.onDownloaded(tasks)
	}

	private fun printTasks(tasks: List<Task>) {
	tasks.forEach { task -> println(task.id) }
	}

view raw suspend_coroutine__suspendcoroutine.kt hosted with ❤ by GitHub

to improve the readability of the code we can hide the suspension inside another function

this will print Downloading… and then Cancelled…

Debounce user’s input in android without using rx or coroutines

There are myriads of blog posts that showcase how to debounce the user’s input by using either rxjava or coroutines. The question is how to implement such a functionality when the project does not have these dependencies?

Debounce

First of all, what is debounce? In essence debounce is a pattern that helps in preventing the repeated execution of a block of code. It does that by adding a delay between two consecutive calls to the block and by cancelling the first call when the second is requested. For example:

When the user types in her keyboard, every key stroke results in calling a block of code that renders what she typed:

By having debounce when the user types, each call gets delayed and cancelled if a new one gets requested resulting in rendering the entire text when the user is finished typing:

Before starting

We are going to add the debounce functionality to the example above. The initial code is very simple:

	class MainActivity : AppCompatActivity() {

	override fun onCreate(savedInstanceState: Bundle?) {
	super.onCreate(savedInstanceState)
	val bindings = ActivityMainBinding.inflate(layoutInflater)
	setContentView(bindings.root)

	with(bindings) {
	userInput.doAfterTextChanged { text ->
	userResult.text = text
	}
	}
	}
	}

view raw debounce_initial.kt hosted with ❤ by GitHub

where userInput is the EditText that the user writes in and userResult is the TextView that the user’s input gets rendered.

Adding the debounce functionality

There are two ways to do this. The first uses java’s Timer and TimerTask and the second android’s Handler. Both of them help in implementing the same algorithm:

on every key stroke we first cancel any previous call request
then we setup some kind of timer for our delay and the code that needs to be called
and finally, when the time passes, we make the call

Timer and TimerTask

We can use Timer to schedule the execution of a block of code after a given delay. The provided block must be a TimerTask which will be added to a queue and when the time comes it will be executed in a background thread. This last part is very important since we cannot set anything UI related there. That’s why we use the Timer just for the delay part and then we use the view’s Handler to execute the actual code to the main thread:

	class MainActivity : AppCompatActivity() {

	private var timer = Timer()

	override fun onCreate(savedInstanceState: Bundle?) {
	super.onCreate(savedInstanceState)
	val bindings = ActivityMainBinding.inflate(layoutInflater)
	setContentView(bindings.root)

	with(bindings) {
	userInput.doAfterTextChanged { text ->
	timer.cancel() // cancel any previous delay

	timer = Timer() // schedule a new one
	timer.schedule(500L) {
	// we are in a background thread here
	userInput.handler.post { userResult.text = text }
	}
	}
	}
	}
	}

view raw debounce_timer.kt hosted with ❤ by GitHub

Recommended when there is a need to do some intensive work before returning back to the main thread but besides that it could be an overkill. That’s why it might be better to use the view’s Handler for both the delay and the execution.

Handler

The Handler class packs the same functionality as the Timer. We can use it to add a block of code (being added as a callback in a Message instance) in a queue (the handler’s MessageQueue) and when the time comes the message gets removed from the queue and its callback gets executed in the thread that the handler was created in. In our case, since we are using the view’s handler we can be sure that the execution will take place in the main thread.

The Handler class provides methods for both adding and removing from the queue. So what we end up with is something like this:

	class MainActivity : AppCompatActivity() {

	private var counter = 0

	override fun onCreate(savedInstanceState: Bundle?) {
	super.onCreate(savedInstanceState)
	val bindings = ActivityMainBinding.inflate(layoutInflater)
	setContentView(bindings.root)

	with(bindings) {
	userInput.doAfterTextChanged { text ->
	userInput.handler.removeCallbacksAndMessages(counter)
	userInput.handler.postDelayed(500L, ++counter) { userResult.text = text }
	}
	}
	}
	}

view raw debounce_handler.kt hosted with ❤ by GitHub

One note about the counter variable. For removing a particular message we need to identify it and to do that we can use what is called a token. When posting for delay, we also provide an id in the form of a counter so that we can request its deletion later on.

Debounce extension

Since we are in Kotlin land and to avoid having the above code duplicated with various global counters for identification we can create an extension function that will pack everything together and help us in having a reusable component and more readable code:

	fun EditText.debounce(delay: Long, action: (Editable?) -> Unit) {
	doAfterTextChanged { text ->
	var counter = getTag(id) as? Int ?: 0
	handler.removeCallbacksAndMessages(counter)
	handler.postDelayed(delay, ++counter) { action(text) }
	setTag(id, counter)
	}
	}

view raw edittext_debounce_extension.kt hosted with ❤ by GitHub

So our code ends up looking like this:

	class MainActivity : AppCompatActivity() {

	override fun onCreate(savedInstanceState: Bundle?) {
	super.onCreate(savedInstanceState)
	val bindings = ActivityMainBinding.inflate(layoutInflater)
	setContentView(bindings.root)

	with(bindings) {
	userInput.debounce(500L) { text -> userResult.text = text }
	}
	}
	}

view raw debounce_handler_extension.kt hosted with ❤ by GitHub

which is very similar to the original code but provides the debounce functionality!

Lets build a coroutine

Ever since Kotlin introduced coroutines there has been a plethora of posts that showcased their usage in networking or multi threading scenarios. Inevitably many developers when asked what a coroutine is their first answer was “a lightweight thread” or “a way to write clean asynchronous code”. Unfortunately this is not the definition of a coroutine but rather a couple of things that a coroutine can help us with.

Routine (aka Subroutine)

So what is a coroutine? To answer that we must first understand what a routine is.

A routine is nothing more than the common function that we all use every day. Its main characteristic is that its execution must come to a completion before returning to the caller. It does not hold any state and calling it multiple times is like calling it for the first time.

An example:

	// a routine:
	fun saveUserTasks(userId: Int) {
	val user = loadUser(userId)
	println("user loaded")

	val tasks = loadTasks(user)
	println("tasks loaded")

	saveTasks(tasks)
	}

	// when called multiple times:
	fun main() {
	println("Call #1:")
	saveUserTasks(7)

	println("Call #2:")
	saveUserTasks(7)

	println("Call #3:")
	saveUserTasks(7)

	println("done!")
	}

	// its like calling it for the first time:
	/*
	Call #1:
	loading a user…
	user loaded
	loading tasks for provided user…
	tasks loaded
	saving provided tasks…
	Call #2:
	loading a user…
	user loaded
	loading tasks for provided user…
	tasks loaded
	saving provided tasks…
	Call #3:
	loading a user…
	user loaded
	loading tasks for provided user…
	tasks loaded
	saving provided tasks…
	done!
	*/

view raw lets_build_a_coroutine__subroutine.kt hosted with ❤ by GitHub

Coroutine

On the other hand a coroutine (a concept that is way older than Kotlin) is a function that can hold its current state allowing us to pause and resume its execution at certain suspension points. This can be of great help when we need to write concurrent code, meaning, when we need to run two tasks at the same time by executing small parts of those tasks one at a time.

For example, if we have task A broken in two parts (A1, A2) and task B broken in two parts as well (B1, B2), we can write code that executes first A1, then B1, then A2 and finally B2.

Building a coroutine

Our goal is to convert the above routine into a coroutine and to do so we need to have a blueprint:

	fun saveUserTasks(userId: Int) {
	val user = loadUser(userId)
	println("user loaded")
	// save loaded user
	// pause execution

	// resume execution
	// restore saved user
	val tasks = loadTasks(user)
	println("tasks loaded")
	// save loaded tasks
	// pause execution

	// resume execution
	// restore saved tasks
	saveTasks(tasks)
	}

view raw lets_build_a_coroutine__goald.kt hosted with ❤ by GitHub

So, step #1 is to separate the states into blocks of code and to do that we are going to use the when statement:

	fun saveUserTasks(userId: Int, state: Int) {
	when (state) {
	0 -> {
	val user = loadUser(userId)
	println("user loaded")
	// save loaded user
	// pause execution
	}

	1 -> {
	// resume execution
	// restore saved user
	val tasks = loadTasks(user) // ERROR: unknown user
	println("tasks loaded")
	// save loaded tasks
	// pause execution
	}

	2 -> {
	// resume execution
	// restore saved tasks
	saveTasks(tasks) // ERROR: unknown tasks
	}
	}
	}

view raw lets_build_a_coroutine__state_blocks.kt hosted with ❤ by GitHub

the problem here is that the code does not compile since the states do not communicate and are missing important information.

To fix it we are moving to step #2 where the state parameter will be used as a vessel to pass data from one state to the other:

	class State(
	var label: Int = 0,
	var result: Any? = null
	)

	fun saveUserTasks(userId: Int, state: State) {
	when (state.label) {
	0 -> {
	val user = loadUser(userId)
	println("user loaded")
	state.result = user
	// pause execution
	}

	1 -> {
	// resume execution
	val user = state.result as User
	val tasks = loadTasks(user)
	println("tasks loaded")
	state.result = tasks
	// pause execution
	}

	2 -> {
	// resume execution
	val tasks = state.result as List<Task>
	saveTasks(tasks)
	}
	}
	}

view raw lets_build_a_coroutine__state_object.kt hosted with ❤ by GitHub

the code now has distinct states that share data but it cannot resume correctly since there is no way to move from one state to the other.

Step #3 addresses that by updating the state’s label allowing the function to resume from where it was paused:

	fun saveUserTasks(userId: Int, state: State) {
	when (state.label) {
	0 -> {
	val user = loadUser(userId)
	println("user loaded")
	state.result = user
	state.label = 1
	return
	}

	1 -> {
	// resume execution
	val user = state.result as User
	val tasks = loadTasks(user)
	println("tasks loaded")
	state.result = tasks
	state.label = 2
	return
	}

	2 -> {
	// resume execution
	val tasks = state.result as List<Task>
	saveTasks(tasks)
	}
	}
	}

view raw lets_build_a_coroutine__state_update.kt hosted with ❤ by GitHub

and that’s it. saveUserTasks is now a coroutine where every call executes a small part of the function allowing us to pause and resume the task:

	fun main() {
	val state = State()

	println("Call #1:")
	saveUserTasks(7, state)

	println("Call #2:")
	saveUserTasks(7, state)

	println("Call #3:")
	saveUserTasks(7, state)

	println("done!")
	}

	// results in:
	/*
	Call #1:
	loading a user…
	user loaded
	Call #2:
	loading tasks for provided user…
	tasks loaded
	Call #3:
	saving provided tasks…
	done!
	*/

view raw lets_build_a_coroutine__state_exec.kt hosted with ❤ by GitHub

Concurrency

We did manage to convert a routine to a coroutine but the example did not show the power of using coroutines which is concurrency. Lets change that.

To make things a little bit easier we are going to package a few common functionalities together

	abstract class Coroutine {
	var isFinished: Boolean = false
	private set

	protected val state: State by lazy { State() }

	protected fun resumeWith(result: Any) {
	state.label++
	state.result = result
	}

	protected fun <T> restore(): T {
	return state.result as T
	}

	protected fun finish() {
	state.label++
	isFinished = true
	}

	protected class State(
	var label: Int = 0,
	var result: Any? = null
	)
	}

view raw lets_build_a_coroutine__coroutine.kt hosted with ❤ by GitHub

which allows us to create these

	class SaveUserTasks : Coroutine() {

	operator fun invoke(userId: Int) {
	saveUserTasks(userId, state)
	}

	private fun saveUserTasks(userId: Int, state: State) {
	when (state.label) {
	0 -> {
	val user = loadUser(userId)
	println("user loaded")
	resumeWith(user)
	return
	}

	1 -> {
	val user = restore<User>()
	val tasks = loadTasks(user)
	println("tasks loaded")
	resumeWith(tasks)
	return
	}

	2 -> {
	val tasks = restore<List<Task>>()
	saveTasks(tasks)
	finish()
	}
	}
	}
	}

	class ApplyDownloadedSettings : Coroutine() {

	operator fun invoke() {
	applyDownloadedSettings(state)
	}

	private fun applyDownloadedSettings(state: State) {
	when (state.label) {
	0 -> {
	val settings = downloadSettings()
	println("settings downloaded")
	resumeWith(settings)
	return
	}

	1 -> {
	val settings = restore<Settings>()
	applySettings(settings)
	println("setting applied")
	finish()
	}
	}
	}
	}

view raw lets_build_a_coroutine__coroutine_implementations.kt hosted with ❤ by GitHub

This way we can call the two functions as such:

	fun main() {
	val saveUserTasks = SaveUserTasks()
	val applyDownloadedSettings = ApplyDownloadedSettings()

	while (!saveUserTasks.isFinished \|\| !applyDownloadedSettings.isFinished) {
	saveUserTasks(7)
	applyDownloadedSettings()
	}

	println("done!")
	}

	/*
	loading a user…
	user loaded

	downloading settings…
	settings downloaded

	loading tasks for provided user…
	tasks loaded

	applying settings…
	setting applied

	saving provided tasks…

	done!
	/*

view raw lets_build_a_coroutine__final_exec.kt hosted with ❤ by GitHub

As you can see the two functions are being executed concurrently. First we load the user, then we download the settings, then we load the user’s task and so on and so forth!

The “Tell, don’t ask” principle

This is one of my favorite principles because it is easy to spot when violated and because it helps in having proper API surfaces when applied.

Tell, don’t ask

In essence this principle proposes that instead of asking from an instance for its values in order to decide how the same instance will execute something, just tell the instance to execute it. It knows its own state, it can make its own decisions!

Asking

By asking we actually refer to accessing many of a class’s properties. For example:

	// somewhere in the code
	if (task.status == Status.NotStarted && task.createdAt < LocalDate.of(2021, 1, 14) && task.subscribers.isEmpty()) {
	task.close()
	}

	// which might have led to this API
	class Task(
	initialStatus: Status,
	val createdAt: LocalDate
	) {

	var status: Status = initialStatus
	private set

	private val innerSubscribers = mutableListOf<Subscriber>()
	val subscribers: List<Subscriber> = innerSubscribers

	fun add(subscriber: Subscriber) {
	innerSubscribers.add(subscriber)
	}

	fun close() {
	status = Status.Resolved
	}
	}

view raw tell_dont_ask__violation.kt hosted with ❤ by GitHub

in the code above we ask the task to provide the values of three of its properties in order to decide if we are going to close it or not.
In the process we (a) might had to expose those properties just for this code (creation date and subscribers could be private) and (b) inevitably leaked business logic that involves a task (when a task is eligible for closing).

Telling

Lets change the code in order to tell the task to close itself if possible:

	// somewhere in the code
	task.closeIfUnclaimed(createdBefore = LocalDate.of(2021, 1, 14))

	// task's better API
	class Task(
	initialStatus: Status,
	private val createdAt: LocalDate
	) {

	var status: Status = initialStatus
	private set

	private val subscribers = mutableListOf<Subscriber>()

	fun add(subscriber: Subscriber) {
	subscribers.add(subscriber)
	}

	fun closeIfUnclaimed(createdBefore: LocalDate): Boolean {
	if (status == Status.NotStarted && createdAt < createdBefore && subscribers.isEmpty()) {
	status = Resolved
	return true
	}

	return false
	}
	}

view raw tell_dont_ask__applied.kt hosted with ❤ by GitHub

There are two things that we gain from this change:

we moved the “closing” logic in the Task itself which allows us to contain future logic alterations in just one place.
the class’s API exposes only the necessary helping us to avoid accidental couplings.

LSP and ISP: The LI of SOLID

I am under the impression that every time I come across a SOLID post, LSP and ISP are not given the same amount of attention as the other three. I guess its because they are the easiest to grasp but make no mistake, they are also the easiest to violate!

Liskov Substitution Principle (LSP)

In essence, LSP proposes that we create sub-classes that can be used wherever their parents are being used without breaking or changing the client’s behavior.

This means that in the code snippet below:

	fun printSeniority(engineer: SoftwareEngineer, yearsInBusiness: Int) {
	val seniority = engineer.calculateSeniority(yearsInBusiness)
	val label = when (seniority) {
	SoftwareEngineer.JUNIOR -> "junior"
	SoftwareEngineer.MID -> "mid"
	else -> "senior"
	}

	println("This is a $label engineer")
	}

view raw lsp_isp__lsp_fun.kt hosted with ❤ by GitHub

we should be able to pass instances from all sub-classes of SoftwareEngineer without worrying that calculateSeniority will break or change the behavior of printSeniority.

Ways that we tend to violate LSP

By throwing an exception

	class MobileEngineer : SoftwareEngineer() {

	override fun calculateSeniority(yearsInBusiness: Int): Int {
	require(yearsInBusiness > 2)
	return super.calculateSeniority(yearsInBusiness)
	}
	}

view raw lsp_isp__lsp_throw.kt hosted with ❤ by GitHub

This is the obvious one. If, for example, the subclass adds a check that will eventually throw an exception then the client will break.

By returning undocumented results

	class MobileEngineer : SoftwareEngineer() {

	override fun calculateSeniority(yearsInBusiness: Int): Int {
	if (yearsInBusiness >= 15) {
	return ULTRA_SENIOR
	}
	return super.calculateSeniority(yearsInBusiness)
	}

	companion object {
	const val ULTRA_SENIOR = 3
	}
	}

	// which leads in:

	fun printSeniority(engineer: SoftwareEngineer, yearsInBusiness: Int) {
	val seniority = engineer.calculateSeniority(yearsInBusiness)
	val label = when (seniority) {
	MobileEngineer.ULTRA_SENIOR -> "ultra senior" // printSeniority is forced to know about MobileEngineer
	SoftwareEngineer.JUNIOR -> "junior"
	SoftwareEngineer.MID -> "mid"
	else -> "senior"
	}

	println("This is a $label engineer")
	}

view raw lsp_isp__lsp_know_more.kt hosted with ❤ by GitHub

In other words, the subclass returns something that the its parent never will.
This forces the client to know about the subclass which makes the code less scalable.

By having side effects

	class MobileEngineer(
	private val backend: Backend
	) : SoftwareEngineer() {

	override fun calculateSeniority(yearsInBusiness: Int): Int {
	return backend.calculateSeniority(yearsInBusiness)
	}
	}

view raw lsp_isp__lsp_network.kt hosted with ❤ by GitHub

This is the subtle one since it does not change the client’s code but it does change the expected behavior. printSeniority is expected to make a calculation and then print the result but know it also makes a network call!

Interface Segregation Principle (ISP)

In essence, ISP proposes that interfaces should not play the role of “methods bucket” because eventually there will be a client that will not need to implement all of them.

This means that interfaces like this:

	interface Repository {
	// db:
	fun select(id: Int): SoftwareEngineer?
	fun insert(engineer: SoftwareEngineer)

	// api:
	fun get(id: Int): SoftwareEngineer?
	fun post(engineer: SoftwareEngineer)
	}

	class LocalEngineersCache : Repository {

	override fun select(id: Int): SoftwareEngineer? {
	// actual implementation
	}

	override fun insert(engineer: SoftwareEngineer) {
	// actual implementation
	}

	override fun get(id: Int): SoftwareEngineer? {
	throw UnsupportedOperationException()
	}

	override fun post(engineer: SoftwareEngineer) {
	throw UnsupportedOperationException()
	}
	}

view raw lsp_isp__isp_all_in_one.kt hosted with ❤ by GitHub

should break in more meaningful parts and allow every client to implement only the part that it needs:

	interface Database {
	fun select(id: Int): SoftwareEngineer?
	fun insert(engineer: SoftwareEngineer)
	}

	interface Api {
	fun get(id: Int): SoftwareEngineer?
	fun post(engineer: SoftwareEngineer)
	}

	class LocalEngineersCache : Database {

	override fun select(id: Int): SoftwareEngineer? {
	// actual implementation
	}

	override fun insert(engineer: SoftwareEngineer) {
	// actual implementation
	}
	}

view raw lsp_isp__isp_broken.kt hosted with ❤ by GitHub

Its worth mentioning that this way, in addition from avoiding ISP violation we also:

Keep our code from violating the SRP.
In the first implementation, our cache depends in two things so it has more that one reasons to change (ex: a new parameter in the post method would force us to change our cache too)
Keep our code from violating the LSP. By having one interface, the first implementation of our cache couldn’t be used in code that expects repositories since its API methods would break the client.
Keep our code clean and scalable (the cache does not have to know about talking to the API)

Ways that we tend to violate ISP

Although there is not much to say here, since the only way to do it is by creating those buckets we mentioned above, beware of the creation since it comes in two flavors.
The first is by having all methods in one file. Easy to catch it in a PR review. The second though is by having an hierarchy in our interfaces.

	interface Load {
	fun load(): List<SoftwareEngineer>
	}

	interface LoadAndSave : Load {
	fun save(engineer: SoftwareEngineer)
	}

view raw lsp_isp__isp_hierarchy.kt hosted with ❤ by GitHub

By the time there is an implementation that does not need all methods, it might too late!

Avoid primitive obsession and build your own context

Primitive obsession is a known code smell that describes the usage of primitives for representing domain values. For example:

	class User(
	val name: String,
	val age: Int
	) {

	init {
	require(name.length in (2..25))
	require(age in (0..110))
	}
	}

view raw primitive_obsession__user_with_primitives.kt hosted with ❤ by GitHub

In this class both the user’s name and age are being represented by a string and an int respectively.

How else could we represent a name and an age?
Well, the primitives are the correct ones but not for direct usage. We can build value objects upon them and encapsulate both the meaning of the value and the business logic:

	class User(
	val name: Name,
	val age: Age
	)

	class Name private constructor(
	val value: String
	) {
	companion object {
	fun of(value: String): Name {
	require(value.length in (2..25))
	return Name(value)
	}
	}
	}

	class Age private constructor(
	val value: Int
	) {
	companion object {
	fun of(value: Int): Age {
	require(value in (0..110))
	return Age(value)
	}
	}
	}

view raw primitive_obsession__user_with_value_objects.kt hosted with ❤ by GitHub

So what? You just wrapped a primitive and moved the check.
True but now we have:

1. A reusable object

When the time comes and we need to have a new named entity we just use the class above and we can be sure that the business logic will follow along and be concise in the entire project.

2. Always valid instances

Whenever we see an instance of name or age we are certain that the instance holds a valid value. This means that an entity that consists from those value objects can only create valid instances and this means that the code that uses those entities (and value objects) does not need to have unnecessary checks. Cleaner code.

3. Code that scales more easily

Lets say that our business logic changes and we need to support users with invalid names too but without the need to deal with the name itself.
Having a value object can help implement the change easily. We just change the Name class. All other code remains the same:

	sealed class Name constructor(
	val value: String
	) {

	object UnknownName : Name("")

	class KnownName(value: String) : Name(value)

	companion object {
	fun of(value: String): Name {
	return if (value.length in (2..25))
	KnownName(value) else
	UnknownName
	}
	}
	}

view raw primitive_obsession__user_with_invalid_name.kt hosted with ❤ by GitHub

4. Code that is more robust

Lets say that our entities have the notion of an id and that after a few years the underline value needs to change from an integer to a long.
By having a value object to represent the Id all changes will take place in the outer layers of our architecture where we load/fetch ids from databases/network and create the id instances. The rest of project will remain untouched, especially the domain layer that holds our business logic.
If we had chosen the path of having an integer property in every entity then all of our entities, and the code that uses them, would need to change too.

5. Code that is more readable and reveals its usage

I’ve written a couple of posts in the past that showcase both the readability aspect and the revelation one.

6. A blueprint of our domain

When we open our project and see files like Invoice, Price, Quantity, Amount, Currency we get an immediate feel of what this project/package deals with and what are its building blocks.
We consume information that we would otherwise need to dig inside each file to find out.

7. A context

The final and most important part of having value objects is that now we can complete our entities and build a context for our domain. A common language that we can use to communicate with other engineers and stake holders in general.
Primitives are essential and they are the building blocks of a language but not of our business. The rest of company does not build its workflows upon integers and strings. It uses the businesses’ building blocks like age, name etc. It is vital that we do the same too in order to keep our code base in sync with the business.

IoC: Inversion of Control principle

This is the one principle that, chances are, you have applied even if you didn’t do it on purpose.
In essence, if you have written code that does not have any control over the execution flow, then you most probably have applied the IoC principle. How?

IoC through design patterns

If you have implemented the strategy or the template pattern then you have applied the IoC principle. For example, having a report generator and feeding it with the necessary filtering code.
All the code you write for filtering data, does not have any control over the execution’s flow. The generator is the one that decides when and if it will be invoked:

	class Report(
	val women: List<Person>,
	val men: List<Person>
	) {
	fun isEmpty(): Boolean {
	return women.isEmpty() && men.isEmpty()
	}
	}

	class ReportGenerator(
	private val repository: Repository
	) {

	fun create(filter: (Report) -> Report): Report {
	val people = repository.fetchAllPeople()

	val rawReport = splitByGender(people)
	if (rawReport.isEmpty()) {
	return rawReport
	}

	// the filter function does not have any control over its invokation
	val filteredReport = filter(rawReport)
	return sortByName(filteredReport)
	}

	// …
	}

	// example:
	val reportGenerator = ReportGenerator(repository)

	val withPeopleOver21 = { rawReport: Report ->
	val over21 = { person: Person -> person.age > 21 }
	Report(
	rawReport.women.filter(over21),
	rawReport.men.filter(over21)
	)
	}

	val reportWithPeopleOver21 = reportGenerator.create(withPeopleOver21)

view raw ioc__strategy_pattern.kt hosted with ❤ by GitHub

Strategy pattern

The same goes with the template pattern too. The code you write in the template’s hooks is being controlled by the template and you don’t get to control it:

	class Report(
	val women: List<Person>,
	val men: List<Person>
	) {
	fun isEmpty(): Boolean {
	return women.isEmpty() && men.isEmpty()
	}
	}

	abstract class ReportGenerator(
	private val repository: Repository
	) {

	fun create(): Report {
	val people = repository.fetchAllPeople()

	val rawReport = splitByGender(people)
	if (rawReport.isEmpty()) {
	return rawReport
	}

	val filteredReport = filter(rawReport)
	return sortByName(filteredReport)
	}

	abstract fun filter(report: Report): Report

	// …
	}

	class AdultsReportGenerator(repository: Repository) : ReportGenerator(repository) {

	override fun filter(report: Report): Report {
	val over21 = { person: Person -> person.age > 21 }
	return Report(
	report.women.filter(over21),
	report.men.filter(over21)
	)
	}
	}

	// example:
	val generator = AdultsReportGenerator(repository)
	val reportWithPeopleOver21 = generator.create()

view raw ioc__template_pattern.kt hosted with ❤ by GitHub

Template pattern

Both of these examples might seem weird since we are the ones that wrote both the filtering code and the generator so we feel that we control the flow. The thing is that we need to separate them in our heads and observe them individually. The generator is the one that controls the flow and dictates the actions that will take place. The filtering code is one of the actions. We just write them, provide them to the generator and that’s it.

IoC through frameworks

Another way of applying IoC is by using frameworks that have adopted it. Most popular are the IoC containers that are used to inject dependencies.
Another example is the android’s framework. In android you don’t have control over an activity’s lifecycle and you simply extend the Activity class and override hooks to run your code.

IoC vs DI

Because of the aforementioned IoC containers, many people assume that dependency injection and IoC are the same. They are not. DI is just a way to help in applying the IoC principle. For example:

	class Report(
	val women: List<Person>,
	val men: List<Person>
	) {
	fun isEmpty(): Boolean {
	return women.isEmpty() && men.isEmpty()
	}
	}

	class ReportGenerator(
	private val repository: Repository,
	private val filter: (Report) -> Report
	) {

	fun create(): Report {
	val people = repository.fetchAllPeople()

	val rawReport = splitByGender(people)
	if (rawReport.isEmpty()) {
	return rawReport
	}

	val filteredReport = filter(rawReport)
	return sortByName(filteredReport)
	}

	// …
	}

	// Example:
	val withPeopleOver21 = { report: Report ->
	val over21 = { person: Person -> person.age > 21 }
	Report(
	report.women.filter(over21),
	report.men.filter(over21)
	)
	}

	val generator = ReportGenerator(repository, withPeopleOver21)
	val reportWithPeopleOver21 = generator.create()

view raw ioc__dependency_injection.kt hosted with ❤ by GitHub

we can change the generator and have the filtering code being injected to it by constructor. The inversion is already happening, DI is simply used to provide the extra code.